Long-term effects of bullying: how it can affect you as an adult, and what helps

Does childhood bullying affect you as an adult?

It can, for some people. First, what counts as bullying.

If you were bullied, you are far from alone. About one in five US high school students say they were bullied at school in the past year^[1], and reviews estimate that around one in three children are bullied at some point^[2]. Researchers who reviewed the evidence call being bullied by peers “the most frequent form of abuse encountered by children”, and say it is wrongly seen as a normal part of growing up^[2].

What the long-term studies show

• Britain, five decades. A study of 7,771 people born in 1958 found that those bullied as children had more psychological distress at ages 23 and 50. People who were bullied frequently had roughly double the odds of depression, and higher odds of anxiety disorders and suicidal thoughts. The effects were similar in size to those of being taken into care as a child^[3].
• The US, into the mid-20s. In a study of 1,420 children in North Carolina, those who were bullied were more likely to have panic disorder, agoraphobia and generalised anxiety as young adults. This held even after the researchers took account of earlier mental health problems and family hardship^[4].
• Two countries compared. In groups of children in the UK and the US, those bullied by peers only had more mental health problems as young adults than those maltreated by adults only^[5]. This is one comparison, not a ranking of harms: in the UK group, mothers reported the maltreatment, so it may be under-counted.
• Depression, many years on. A review of 28 long-term studies found bullied children had higher odds of depression up to 36 years later, even after taking account of up to 20 other childhood risk factors^[6].

Two patterns stand out. People who were bullied more often, more severely or for longer tend to have worse outcomes^[2]. And children who were both bullied and bullied others had the worst outcomes of all^[4].

Linked with, not proven to cause

These are observational studies. They show links and raised risk, not proof. One major review says data like these “do not allow causal inferences”, although the consistency of the findings is “compelling”^[7]. A review of 165 studies, mostly of young people, went further. It judged the evidence strong enough to treat being bullied as a likely cause of later depression, anxiety, poor general health and suicidal thoughts, not just a coincidence^[8].

There is hopeful news too. The link with depression was weaker in studies with longer follow-up^[6]. And children who stopped being bullied at school had fewer lingering effects years later than those bullied for years, though still more than people who were never bullied^[2].

How it can show up now

Everyone is different, and the same experience can hit one person much harder than another^[10]. These are some of the ways research says childhood bullying can carry into adult life. They are common human reactions, not a diagnosis.

Mental health

Anxiety, panic, low mood and suicidal thoughts are the outcomes most clearly linked with being bullied^[3][4]. StopBullying.gov, the US government’s bullying site, lists depression and anxiety disorders among the problems that can last into adulthood^[9]. Our pages on depression and anxiety and stress explain more.

Self-esteem and shame

StopBullying.gov names low self-esteem and feelings of shame as lasting effects^[9]. Bullying and self-esteem feed each other. Across 18 studies of young people, being bullied predicted lower self-esteem later, and lower self-esteem also predicted being bullied^[16]. That loop does not make it your fault. It does mean self-worth is something you can work on directly. See our page on self-esteem. You might recognise some of these:

• Harsh self-talk, or a feeling that something is wrong with you^[16]
• Expecting rejection or hostility. Researchers think being on alert for hostile cues may be one way bullying affects later relationships^[2]
• Replaying old scenes in your head^[19]

Friendships and relationships

In the British study, people frequently bullied as children had more trouble making or keeping friends, met friends less often, had less social support, and were more likely to live without a partner at 50^[2][3]. In Norway, people bullied as teenagers reported poorer relationships with a live-in partner at 27^[12]. These are averages across large groups. They do not mean you cannot have close, trusting relationships.

Loneliness

Here the picture is mixed. In a British twin study, being bullied as a child predicted loneliness as a young adult, but the link was explained by genetic factors^[17]. A 2026 review of 30 studies of children and teenagers found that once earlier loneliness was taken into account, the long-term effect of being bullied was very small^[18]. So bullying has not been shown to cause lifelong loneliness. Loneliness now still matters, though. In a study of 1,772 young adults in Finland, loneliness and being mistreated at work were key predictors of dwelling on past bullying^[19]. Our page on loneliness has more.

Body, work and money

On average, people bullied as children had poorer general health and more pain as adults^[12], and higher levels of inflammation in blood tests, a general marker linked to later health problems^[13][14]. By 50, men and women bullied as children were less likely to be in work and had built up less wealth^[15]. These are group averages. They do not predict what will happen to any one person.

Can bullying cause PTSD?

Being bullied can lead to PTSD-type symptoms, and some researchers think it fits complex PTSD better. Whether it causes PTSD in the formal, diagnostic sense is still debated.

Bullying can be traumatic. The US National Child Traumatic Stress Network says being bullied can lead to traumatic stress reactions, including PTSD^[20], and StopBullying.gov counts bullying as an adverse childhood experience^[10]. Across 29 studies of people bullied at school or at work, many reported PTSD symptoms above screening thresholds, and the link was as strong in adults as in children^[21]. But every one of those studies looked at a single point in time, and they used symptom questionnaires, not diagnoses. The authors concluded there is “no absolute evidence for or against” bullying as a cause of PTSD^[21].

Part of the debate is about definitions. A PTSD diagnosis requires a particular kind of traumatic event, and researchers point out that it is not settled whether bullying counts^[22][23].

What about complex PTSD?

Complex PTSD is a diagnosis in the World Health Organization’s ICD-11. Some researchers argue it captures the mix of problems linked with bullying better than PTSD does^[23]. A small 2025 review of 12 studies, most of them snapshots in time, found being bullied was linked with complex PTSD symptoms in young people and adults, and particularly with complex PTSD rather than PTSD. The authors say a causal link cannot yet be shown^[24].

Signs to look out for

PTSD-type symptoms after bullying can include:

• Memories that push in uninvited, or flashbacks that arrive without warning^[10]
• Avoiding people, places or situations that remind you of it
• Feeling on guard, as if hostility could come at any moment^[2]
• Feeling numb or flat, or no longer enjoying things you used to^[10]
• Harsh, fixed beliefs about yourself

Symptoms can start straight after the events, or months or even years later^[25]. Only a qualified professional can diagnose PTSD or complex PTSD. If this sounds like you, an assessment can help, and trauma-focused therapies have strong evidence (see below). Our page on PTSD therapy explains more.

Why some people are affected more than others

How often, and for how long. Outcomes tend to be worse for people bullied more frequently, more severely or for longer^[2].

Warmth and support. In children, warmth matters. In a study of 1,116 pairs of twins, warmth from mothers and siblings and a positive atmosphere at home helped protect bullied children, and the twin who got more warmth had fewer behaviour problems^[26]. That research was in children aged 10 to 12, not adults.

For adults, we can only reason from other research. After traumatic events in general, a lack of social support is one of the stronger risk factors for PTSD^[27], and the most common response to trauma is resilience or natural recovery over time^[28]. So supportive relationships now, and a therapist, may play a similar protective role. That is a reasonable inference, not a tested finding.

Whether anyone knew. Up to half of children say they would rarely or never tell their parents they were being bullied^[2], so if you never told anyone, you are not unusual. One review suggests that simply having the impact acknowledged by schools and families may stop normal distress turning into mental health problems^[7].

What can help now

None has been tested in adults who were bullied as children, so each one says what kind of evidence is behind it.

Does therapy help after bullying?

The honest picture

Surprisingly little research has tested therapy for adults who were bullied as children. A major 2018 review said treatment in adult life might help reverse the harm, but “no studies have yet tested this hypothesis”^[7]. A 2026 review of 23 studies of CBT and imagery-based therapies for problems related to bullying found promising improvements, especially in how people saw themselves and coped^[30]. But the studies varied a lot, and the main results compared people before and after treatment. Once the authors allowed for missing studies, the effect on anxiety and low mood shrank and was no longer statistically significant. They urge caution^[30]. It is also unclear how many of those studies were in adults.

What we do have is strong evidence for treating the problems bullying is linked with. And symptoms should not be overlooked just because the bullying has stopped^[7].

If you have PTSD-type symptoms

UK guidance recommends trauma-focused CBT for adults with PTSD or clinically important PTSD symptoms, so you do not need a formal diagnosis. It is typically 8 to 12 sessions, or more for people who have experienced multiple traumas. EMDR is also recommended for PTSD after non-combat trauma^[31]. The 2025 US psychology guideline strongly recommends cognitive processing therapy, prolonged exposure and trauma-focused CBT, and conditionally recommends cognitive therapy, EMDR and narrative exposure therapy^[28]. A review of 114 trials found clear benefits for trauma-focused CBT and EMDR^[32], and US guidelines support delivering validated trauma therapies by secure video^[33]. Read more about EMDR and trauma therapy.

If it shows up as low mood or social anxiety

CBT is an established treatment for depression in adults: a large review found it effective, although the effects may have been overestimated^[34]. If being around people feels threatening, UK guidance recommends individual CBT developed specifically for social anxiety^[35], and a large review of treatments ranked individual CBT the best first treatment^[36]. The bullying studies linked being bullied with panic, agoraphobia and generalised anxiety^[4]. They do not show that bullying causes social anxiety, so think of this as treating what you have now. See CBT and our post on social anxiety.

Where to find this kind of help

• In the UK: see a GP, or if you are 18 or over, refer yourself to an NHS talking therapies service^[25].
• In the US: start with a primary care doctor, or a therapist covered by your health insurance.
• Online, on Bliss Therapy: choose a therapist who speaks your language, by video, with no waitlist, with sessions from €30 (about £25).

How Bliss Therapy can help

When the bullying was about who you are

Bullying often targets what makes a child stand out. Children can be bullied because of their skin colour, their cultural practices or the language they speak^[37]. Being seen as different, or being new to a school, raises the risk, although no single factor puts a child at risk^[38]. If you grew up as “the different one”, or now live far from where you grew up, talking it through in your own language with someone who understands your background can make old experiences easier to put into words. Research suggests therapy in a client’s own language tends to work better^[39].

On Bliss Therapy you choose a therapist who speaks your language, by video, with no waitlist. 35 psychologists and counsellors list trauma, with sessions from €30 (about £25); 29 of them list CBT.

Our therapists are based outside the UK and the US, so they are unlikely to be on UK registers or covered by US health insurance. Ask any therapist about their training, including in trauma-focused therapy, and their registration in the country where they practise.

If your child is being bullied now

Talk with your child regularly, really listen, and encourage them to go to a trusted adult if they are bullied^[40]. Watch for changes such as regular headaches or tummy aches, sleeping badly or having nightmares, reluctance to go to school, or a sudden drop in friends. Get help quickly if your child talks about harming themselves or suicide^[41].

In the US, raise it with a teacher, school counsellor or principal^[42], and ask for an interpreter or translated documents if you need them^[37]. In the UK, report it to the school first; state schools must have a behaviour policy that covers bullying^[43][44]. Keep a record of the dates and times of online messages, and do not delete them^[44]. Some bullying is illegal and should be reported to the police^[43]. Our page on parenting support has more.

When to get help

Talk to a doctor or a therapist if memories of being bullied still intrude, if you avoid people or places because of it, or if you feel low, anxious or on edge most days. PTSD may be diagnosed when symptoms last a long time and get in the way of daily life, such as relationships or work^[45]. These symptoms should not be overlooked just because the bullying has stopped^[7]. They can start years after the events^[25], so it is never too late to ask for help.